Little Known Houston History

A 7 minute documentary on little known Houston history.

History Project - It's not Greek to us

This is our Western Civilizations Midterm project. A meeting of Minds between Aristophanes and MLK Jr. The Excerpts of the Script "Into Eternity" were written by Nathan Zellner and Revised by Caitlin Neeley. Enjoy!

Engineering An Empire: Greece (History Channel program) Part 3/3

Western Civilization has been influenced by many cultures, from Rome to America, but it was born in Ancient Greece. Centuries before Julius Caesar conquered much of the known world, the Ancient Greeks were laying a foundation that has supported nearly 3000 years of European history. Ancient Greece brings to mind philosophers like Aristotle and Socrates, Olympian gods, the beginnings of democracy, great conquering armies like those of Alexander the Great, and savage internecine battles, none more famous than the duel to the death between Athens and Sparta. Greece is a story about the human drive to explore, to wonder, to be curious. Their ruins now communicate that drive. Over 1000 years, this strong and charismatic people strategically harnessed the materials and people around them to create the most advanced technological feats the world had ever seen. From The Tunnel of Samos: a mile-long aqueduct dug through a large mountain of solid limestone, to Agamemnon's Tomb, to The Parthenon, this episode will examine the architecture and infrastructure engineered by the Greek Empire.

Roman Glass Jewelry - Wear History Art and Color in Your Jewelery Necklaces, Earrings, Bracelets

Roman Glass is an ancient glass, discovered in archaeological excavation sites in Israel and in other Mediterranean countries.The fine Sterling Silver Roman Glass Jewelry is one of the most popular types and styles originated from Israel enabling to wear an entirely unique piece of 2,000-year-old history. The glass in this aqua-hued jewelry began life as a vase, jug, or vessel. Uncovered from ancient Roman archaeological sites in modern-day Israel, each fragment has been textured and colored by centuries of wind and weather. Each bear the marks of not only its past life as a household or temple object but also the very earth in which it rested until being transformed into a unique accent. Each piece of Roman glass is framed by a sterling silver bezel.

The designs for the jewels are based on artifacts and drawings also discovered on the archeological digs. The Roman Glass is a beautiful piece of history dating back 2,000 years to the time of the Roman Empire. The Roman Glass used for jewelry today in Israel is found in archeological digs throughout the land of Israel. The natural phenomenon which the glass has undergone over the many years it has been buried have given it the unique and beautiful aqua shades we enjoy today.Initially, in the Roman empire, glass was mainly used for vessels and available only for the wealthy. At that time, glass was manufactured by core forming, casting, cutting and grinding. However, since the invention of the glass blowing, glass was available to the public in vast numbers, mass produced in a large variety of shapes and forms. Due to the great popularity of glass during those ancient times, we today are privileged to make use of these gorgeous historical pieces with which we enhance the beauty of our jewelry. Ancient Israel, due to its large stretches of sandy dunes and beaches, was one of the largest glass producers of the Roman Empire. These same sands helped preserve the glass through the centuries, shaping and tempering it into the jewelry-quality pieces being excavated today. Today the fragments of the 2000 years old Roman Glass that were once part of the lip of a goblet, jar, or other vessel are used in Israel to create beautiful jewelry that mixes the typical blue and green old glass excavated from archaeological digs with silver or gold creating a piece of art and history to wear with love.

A certificate of authenticity is available for the Roman Glass jewelry.

It is interesting to know some facts about the glass history and the Roman Glass history, collected from several sources.

The History of Glass

Glass is formed when sand (silica), soda (alkali), and lime are fused at high temperatures. The color of the glass can be altered by adjusting the atmosphere in the furnace and by adding specific metal oxides to the glass "batch" (such as cobalt for dark blue, tin for opaque white, antimony and manganese for colorless glass). A venerable legend perpetuated as late as the seventh century A.D. in the writings of Isidore of Seville gives a suitable miraculous explanation for the discovery of this elemental--yet truly wondrous--material - This was its origin: in a part of Syria which is called Phoenicia, there is a swamp close to Judaea, around the base of Mt. Carmel, from which the Bellus River arises . . . whose sands are purified from contamination by the torrent's flow. The story is that here a ship of natron [sodium carbonate] merchants had been shipwrecked; when they were scattered about on the shore preparing food and no stones were at hand for propping up their pots, they brought lumps of natron from the ship. The sand of the shore became mixed with the burning natron and translucent streams of a new liquid flowed forth: and this was the origin of glass.(Isidore of Seville, Etymologies XVI.16. Translation by Charles Witke.) It is not surprising that the ancient authorities thought of Phoenicia as the birthplace of glass, for the Syro-Palestine region did indeed become a major center of glass production in antiquity, along with Egypt. However, glass seems actually to have been "discovered" not in Phoenicia, but in Mesopotamia. Archaeological research now places the first evidence of true glass there at around 2500 B.C. At first it was used for beads, seals, and architectural decoration.

Some 1,000 years elapsed before glass vessels are known to have been produced. Vessels of glass quickly became widespread in the second half of the second millennium B.C. They were popular not only in Mesopotamia but also in Egypt and the Aegean. The earliest vessels were core-formed. Opaque, dark glass in its molten state was wound around a clay core attached to a metal rod. The skin of hot glass was fashioned with tools in order to shape its external features. Lighter colored strands of hot glass were then trailed on the surface and often "dragged" to produce festoon patterns. The pot surface was marvered (that is, rolled on a smooth, flat surface to produce a level finish). Finally, it was cooled slowly before the clay core was scraped out of the hardened vessel. This glassware typically imitated forms originally established for ceramic, metal, and stone vessels . Somewhat later, the molding technique was developed, whereby glass chips or molten glass were packed or forced into a mold and then fused. After a molded vessel was annealed (cooled slowly in a special chamber of the glass furnace), it was often ground and polished in order to refine the rim and any other rough edges. One typical shape for molded vessels of the late Hellenistic and early Roman periods (c. 150 -50 B.C.) was the so-called pillar-molded bowl. Here exterior ribs radiate up from the base, stopping abruptly near the rim to allow a smooth margin around the circumference. This type is ubiquitous; and it attests to the free and rapid exchange of ideas in glass-making throughout the Greater Mediterranean sphere. The site of Tel Anafa in Israel is a small settlement in the Upper Galilee. During ten seasons of fieldwork between 1968 and 1986, Saul Weinberg and his successor Sharon Herbert oversaw the uncovering of part of a small settlement of the Hellenistic and early Roman periods.

In Tel Anafa I, Herbert presents the architecture and the stratigraphic sequence (text and some illustrations in fasc. i, locus summary and plates to Chs. 1 and 2 in fasc. ii). The volume also includes studies by other scholars of the geological setting of the site, the stamped amphora handles, coins, vertebrate fauna, and a single Tyrian sealing. Tel Anafa II, i is devoted to the Hellenistic and Roman pottery. A future volume (II, ii) will complete the series with publication of the pre-Hellenistic and Islamic pottery, lamps, glass, metalware, stucco, stone tools, and the palaeobotanical remains. Tel Anafa (recently excavated jointly by the Universities of Michigan and Missouri) has provided critical information on the chronological limits of these bowls within the Roman period. Glass vessels were initially available only to the very wealthy and only in rather diminutive sizes. They were manufactured by core forming, casting, cutting and grinding. The invention of glass blowing around 50 BC brought glass vessels to the general public in vast numbers, mass produced in great variety of forms and hence brought ancient glass into the reach of the modern collector of even modest means. One can nowadays own a Roman glass bowl, or drink from a Roman glass beaker, or wear ancient jewellery where glass was used widely. In 63 BC, the Romans conquered the Syro-Palestine area. They brought back with them glassmakers to Rome.Soon after, the first transparent glass sheets were produced in Rome. The word vitrum, meaning glass, entered the Latin language.Rome's political, military, and economic dominanace in the Mediterranean world was a major factor in attracting skilled craftsmen to set up workshops in the city, but equally important was the fact that the establishment of the Roman industry roughly coincided with the invention of glassblowing. The new technique led craftsmen to create novel and unique shapes; examples exist of flasks and bottles shaped like foot sandals, wine barrels, fruits, and even helmets and animals. Some combined blowing with glass-casting and pottery-molding technologies to create the so-called mold-blowing process. Further innovations and stylistic changes saw the continued use of casting and free-blowing to create a variety of open and closed forms that could then be engraved or facet-cut in any number of patterns and designs.

Core-formed and cast glass vessels were first produced in Egypt and Mesopotamia as early as the fifteenth century B.C., but only began to be imported and, to a lesser extent, made on the Italian peninsula in the mid-first millennium B.C. By the time of the Roman Republic (509-27 B.C.), such vessels, used as tableware or as containers for expensive oils, perfumes, and medicines, were common in Etruria (modern Tuscany) and Magna Graecia (areas of southern Italy including modern Campania, Apulia, Calabria, and Sicily). However, there is very little evidence for similar glass objects in central Italian and Roman contexts until the mid-first century B.C. The reasons for this are unclear, but it suggests that the Roman glass industry sprang from almost nothing and developed to full maturity over a couple of generations during the first half of the first century A.D.

Doubtless Rome's emergence as the dominant political, military, and economic power in the Mediterranean world was a major factor in attracting skilled craftsmen to set up workshops in the city, but equally important was the fact that the establishment of the Roman industry roughly coincided with the invention of glassblowing. This invention revolutionized ancient glass production, putting it on a par with the other major industries, such as that of pottery and metalwares (as 20.49.2-12). Likewise, glassblowing allowed craftsmen to make a much greater variety of shapes than before. Combined with the inherent attractiveness of glass-it is nonporous, translucent (if not transparent), and odorless-this adaptability encouraged people to change their tastes and habits, so that, for example, glass drinking cups rapidly supplanted pottery equivalents.

In fact, the production of certain types of native Italian clay cups, bowls, and beakers declined through the Augustan period, and by the mid-first century A.D. had ceased altogether.However, although blown glass came to dominate Roman glass production, it did not altogether supplant cast glass. Especially in the first half of the first century A.D., much Roman glass was made by casting, and the forms and decoration of early Roman cast vessels demonstrate a strong Hellenistic influence. The Roman glass industry owed a great deal to eastern Mediterranean glassmakers, who first developed the skills and techniques that made glass so popular that it can be found on every archaeological site, not only throughout the Roman empire but also in lands far beyond its frontiers.

Cast Glass

Although the core-formed industry dominated glass manufacture in the Greek world, casting techniques also played an important role in the development of glass in the ninth to fourth centuries B.C. Cast glass was produced in two basic ways-through the lost-wax method and with various open and plunger molds. The most common method used by Roman glassmakers for most of the open-form cups and bowls in the first century B.C. was the Hellenistic technique of sagging glass (81.10.243) over a convex "former" mold. However, various casting and cutting methods were continuously utilized as style and popular preference demanded. The Romans also adopted and adapted various color and design schemes from the Hellenistic glass traditions, applying such designs as network glass and gold-band glass to novel shapes and forms. Distinctly Roman innovations in fabric styles and colors include marbled mosaic glass, short-strip mosaic glass, and the crisp, lathe-cut profiles of a new breed of fine as monochrome and colorless tablewares of the early empire, introduced around 20 A.D. This class of glassware became one of the most prized styles because it closely resembled luxury items such as the highly valued rock crystal objects, Augustan Arretine ceramics (as 10.210.37), and bronze and silver tablewares (as 20.49.2-12) so favored by the aristocratic and prosperous classes of Roman society. In fact, these fine wares were the only glass objects continually formed via casting, even up to the as Late Flavian, Trajanic, and Hadrianic periods (96-138 A.D.), after glassblowing superceded casting as the dominant method of glassware manufacture in the early first century A.D.

Blown Glass

SOMETIME AROUND 70 B.C., in Jerusalem, someone realized that, if you took a glass tube -- then the stock for mass production of beads -- sealed one end and blew into the other, you could create a glass bulb. Blow hard enough and long enough, and you could make a small bottle. This was glassblowing at its most primitive. It is quite possible that, without further refinement, this moment of experimentation might have passed unnoticed. A couple of decades later, however, the introduction of a separate blowpipe, together with a tool-kit of variously-sized pincers and paddles, made it possible to blow and shape glass with much greater control, and with much greater novelty.

The new technology revolutionized the Italian glass industry, stimulating an enormous increase in the range of shapes and designs that glassworkers could produce. A glassworker's creativity was no longer bound by the technical restrictions of the laborious casting process, as blowing allowed for previously unparalleled versatility and speed of manufacture. These advantages spurred a rapid evolution of style and form, and experimentation with the new technique led craftsmen to create novel and unique shapes; examples exist of flasks and bottles shaped like foot sandals, wine barrels, fruits, and even helmets and animals. Some combined blowing with glass-casting and pottery-molding technologies to create the so-called mold-blowing process. Further innovations and stylistic changes saw the continued use of casting and free-blowing to create a variety of open and closed forms that could then be engraved or facet-cut in any number of patterns and designs.

But the potential of a technological idea will only come to fruition if its seed is planted in an encouraging cultural environment. During Rome's Republican Era, in the dictatorial times of Sulla and Julius Caesar, such encouragement seems to have been lacking. In the Hellenistic world, the firmly established traditions of working glass -- either by blending threads of it into closed vessel forms or by slumping glass over a pre-shaped model for open ones -- were producing fine wares with which the infant technique of free-blowing could not yet compete. In the Roman world, however, pottery was still the material of choice for everything domestic, from fish platters to perfume bottles, and no one seemed to be in any hurry to change that situation. Enter the Emperor Augustus. It is said that he had no love of foreigners; he viewed the appreciable numbers of them living in Rome around 10 B.C. as a potential source for the corruption of traditional Roman values. If I interpret his subsequent actions correctly, he wanted the Italian mainland to be far more self-sufficient wherever possible. So it was that Italian businesses in certain crafts -- most obviously, pottery- and cloth-making -- were encouraged to expand. The craft of glassworking now was adopted from the Hellenistic world with much energy and skill. An ancient Industrial Revolution was underway.

To get things moving, the Romans simply enslaved hundreds of skilled craftsmen in the eastern provinces, uprooting them from their homes and resettling them in the outskirts of rapidly-growing Roman cities. Pottery-makers were imported from Asia Minor, particularly from around Pergamum, and put to work at Arretium; Greek craftsmen were moved from Athens to Lyons and other cities in central Gaul; glassworkers were brought in from the provinces of Syria, Judaea, and Aegyptus -- most likely from the cities of Sidon, Jerusalem, and Alexandria -- and put to work in shops at Naples, Aquileia, and just outside Rome itself.

There was an immediate market niche for glassware in Augustan times. Like many ancient peoples, the Romans believed in an afterlife that was an idealized form of their worldly experience. According to its means, the family of each dead Roman was obliged to provide furnishings for the grave. Such furnishings always included regular domestic items -- plates of food, flasks of wine, and so on -- but it was also a tradition to include offerings of perfume. The Roman wealthy would put these offerings in bottles (unguentaria) made of silver or alabaster. The eastern craftsmen who brought with them the skill of glassblowing now offered the rest of the population an alternative in glass; to be sure, not something as elegant or colorful as might have been wished, but which everyone could afford. The free-blown unguentarium was one of the immediate and long-term successes of the newly emerging industry. Modern excavations have revealed many instances where a grave contains not just one or two but a couple of dozen of these, all mass-produced, each in a matter of minutes at most.

At the same time, glass captured the popular imagination by virtue of its translucency. You could see the color of wine in a beaker, or how well a bottle was filled even if it was sealed -- which could not be said for items made of pottery, or indeed of bronze, silver, or gold. The production of wine glasses soared in the Augustan era, actually causing the demise of some of the pottery workshops that specialized in traditional beaker types. It was glass's distinctive property of transparency that stimulated the Emperor Nero's tutor, Lucius Seneca to observe that " ... Apples seem more beautiful if they are floating in a glass." (Investigations in Natural Science I.6). And, from the middle of the first century A.D. onward, squared-sided glass bottles -- typically with capacities in the half- to one-liter range -- were used for a great deal of the short-range movement of liquids such as olive oil and the popular fish sauce known as garum. Thus the industrialization of glassworking in the Augustan era came about through the influence of three distinct forces: First, by virtue of certain historical events (Augustus's rise to power and his promotion of craft-centralization on the Italian mainland); second, because of a technical innovation (the invention of glassblowing in one of Rome's eastern provinces); and third, the social pressure related to fashion or taste (a traditional link between perfumery and Roman funerary ritual). Change in the Roman glassworking industry was always most dramatic whenever all three of these forces came together at one time.

Uses

At the height of its popularity and usefulness in Rome, glass was present in nearly every aspect of daily life-from a lady's morning toilette to a merchant's afternoon business dealings to the evening cena, or dinner. Glass alabastra , unguentaria, and other small bottles and boxes held the various oils, perfumes, and cosmetics used by nearly every member of Roman society. Pyxides often contained jewelry with glass elements such as beads, cameos, and intaglios , made to imitate semi-precious stone like carnelian, emerald, rock crystal, sapphire, garnet, sardonyx, and amethyst.

Merchants and traders routinely packed, shipped, and sold all manner of foodstuffs and other goods across the Mediterranean in glass bottles and jars of all shapes and sizes, supplying Rome with a great variety of exotic materials from far-off parts of the empire. Other applications of glass included multicolored tesserae used in elaborate floor and wall mosaics, and mirrors containing colorless glass with wax, plaster, or metal backing that provided a reflective surface. Glass windowpanes were first made in the early imperial period, and used most prominently in the public baths to prevent drafts. Because window glass in Rome was intended to provide insulation and security, rather than illumination or as a way of viewing the world outside, little, if any, attention was paid to making it perfectly transparent or of even thickness. Window glass could be either cast or blown. Cast panes were poured and rolled over flat, usually wooden molds laden with a layer of sand, and then ground or polished on one side. Blown panes were created by cutting and flattening a long cylinder of blown glass. AN INDUSTRY THOUGH Roman glassworking certainly was, it was one that maintained a remarkable degree of dynamism over the centuries. The shape and decoration of two of its main products -- the unguentarium and the wine beaker -- were being modified every few decades, sometimes quite sharply, and there were many new items of glassware introduced that expanded the glassworker's repertoire in significant ways. The way that the Romans committed themselves so heavily to the maintenance of good ports all around the Mediterranean coastline and of fine roads that criss-crossed the entire Empire on land was also critical for keeping the Roman glassmaking industry so dynamic. Of course, the main purpose of such maintenance was to assure the easy movement of troops from one trouble spot to another, and of administrative information from one city to another. But these ports and roads also allowed the movement of people and their ideas. Signatures and inscriptions in Greek indicate clearly enough that eastern Mediterranean craftsmen settled at various places in northern Italy and central Gaul; that north African and Syrian soldiers were conscripted to serve in the army in northern England, thereafter to settle there as tradesmen; and that businessmen of every background and philosophical persuasion traded wherever it was to their advantage to do so. Thus, every Roman city became a social melting-pot where technical innovations could be passed on, blending with or displacing old ideas, sometimes in the space of just a decade or two. The industrial activities of the Roman world responded accordingly, with a freshness of purpose and an ongoing rise in skill.

Jewelry in the Roman Times

Ancient Roman glass jewelry reached its height during the Augustan age, at the beginning of the Empire. This meant that in many ways the glass jewelry were deprived of much of the expressive freedom one might expect and hope for. The buyers of this fine artistic jewelry were the conservative political. The period of peace achieved during the rule of Augustus and Augustus made this possible, especially after the vicious fighting of the Roman civil wars. Ancient Roman jewelry in earlier times was derived from both Hellenistic and Etruscan jewelry. In addition, as Roman jewelry designs freed itself of Hellenistic and Etruscan influences, greater use was made of colored stones such as: topazes, emeralds, rubies, sapphires, and pearls. Trojan and Cretan artisans of the Minoan period, although working at opposite ends of the Aegean region, crafted earrings, bracelets, and necklaces of a common type that persisted from about 2500 BC to the beginning of the Classical period of Greek art 479 BC - 323 BC.

Roman jewelry was highly influenced by some of the designs of the places they conquered and established connections with. The creators spared no effort in making some of the most exquisite and ornamental compositions. Rings were a major symbol in the body of ancient Roman jewelry. Ornamental Roman jewelry was worn by women of high status. They often wore jewelry on their ears, neck, arms and hands. Ancient Roman designs and fashion jewelry also included seal rings, amulets and talismans. The cameo and hoop earrings were introduced in ancient Roman times. Ancient Roman glass jewelry reached its height during the Augustan age, at the beginning of the Empire. This meant that in many ways the glass jewelry were deprived of much of the expressive freedom one might expect and hope for. The buyers of this fine artistic jewelry were the conservative political. The period of peace achieved during the rule of Augustus and Augustus made this possible, especially after the vicious fighting of the Roman civil wars.

The gold beads of ancient Rome were artfully shaped to create images of flowers and animals. The most common fact that is assumed by most is that the ancient Roman jewelry has a similar resembles to the Greek and Etruscan jewelry.

More about Israeli handmade Roman glass jewelry at http://www.bluenoemi-jewelry.com/isroglsije.html

History of Fashion - Ancient Rome

The legend tells that Rome was founded on April 21, 753 BC, by the twin sons of Mars, Romulus and Remus. Romulus killed his brother over the throne and became the sole ruler of Rome. He reigned until 715 BC, when he was succeeded by Numa Pompilius, the founder of Roman law and its religious practices.

With time, Roman power, influence and territory grew to unprecedented proportions in the ancient world. By the end of the Republic (31 BC), Rome controlled the entire Mediterranean. They defeated their most powerful rivals, the Carthaginians, and took over many of the lands ruled by the Greeks, including Egypt. Although, eventually ancient Rome was sacrificed at the altar of its own internal struggles for power, it was not before it had written its name under one of the most important periods in humankind's history. Two thousand years later, ancient Rome remains an endless inspiration of art, culture, architecture, and even fashion.

Costume
Roman costume was influenced by the styles of previous civilizations, such as the Etruscans and the Greeks, and also reflected the dress of conquered peoples, although in a lesser degree. It comprised two main categories: indutus, items that were put on, and amictus, clothing wrapped or draped around the body.

The wide range of climates that existed within the vast Roman Empire led to the creation of the seasonal dressing concept. Dress was adapted to the specific seasons and weather conditions.

Women's clothing
Women's clothes were made of light materials and in a variety of colors, which set them apart from men's clothes. Also, unlike men's dress, women's clothes changed little. The primary garment was the stola, a long tunic with full sleeves. It was made from wool, cotton or linen, with the more expensive designs made from silk. The stola was worn with a girdle known as cingulum and a wide belt, known as a succinda. With the help of these, women achieved to create a double-bloused effect. Under the stola women wore a bust bodice - the strophium, and a sleeveless shift dress - the subucula.

Roman matrons wore wide tunics, pleated into tiny folds, which were held together at the shoulder by a series of buttons along the sleeve.

The palla was a warm piece of cloth with a hood, fastened with a clasp. Another outer garment was the sapparum, worn by women of the upper class, which had short sleeves, and the olicula, which basically was a short cape.

Men's clothing
In the early days of the Republic, Roman men wore a simple linen loincloth known as the subligaculom or licinium. By the time of the empire, only athletes and workmen were permitted to wear loincloths. Romans, unlike the Greeks, were not tolerant of nudity. They did, however, inherit from them their two main garments: the tunic and the cloak. The basic short-sleeved tunic consisted of two pieces of wool cloth joined at the shoulders and down the sides, with slits for the head and arms. It was gathered at the waist with a belt, but could also be worn with a girdle.

There were different tunic styles for different occasions and social ranks. Magistrates wore the Tunica angusti clavi, which had two narrow purple stripes on each shoulder. The Tunica laticlavia, worn by senators, featured wider purple stripes. Made from purple silk and embroidered with gold thread, the Tunica palmata was worn by victorious generals. It consisted of two pieces and was worn together with the Toga picta. There were also other tunics, such as the Tunica recta, the Subucula and Tunica exteriodum, and the Caracaila.

The most important mantle was the toga, which was descended from the Greek himation and the Etruscan tebenna. The draped, elliptically shaped woolen piece of fabric was reserved for Roman citizens; slaves, foreigners, and lower classes were forbidden from wearing it. The toga's decoration, color and shape denoted the wearer's social rank. As did the manner in which the toga was draped.

The different forms of togas included the Toga picta, which signified victory and was worn by Roman generals on specific occasions. This toga was property of the state and only loaned to generals for ceremonial wear. Another toga was the Toga candida, which was worn by candidates for public office. Mourners wore the Toga pulla, which was either black, dark brown or gray, and had a head cover. The solid purple Toga trabea was worn by spiritual men. The same toga with purple and crimson stripes was reserved for the augurs or omens interpreters, while the purple and white one revealed the rulers of the Republic.

With the expansion of the Empire, Rome came to include in its territories much of northern Europe, which translated into harsher climatic conditions. Warm outer garments became a necessity. The Roman wardrobe included the sagum - a blanket-like wrap, taken from the Gauls; the lacerna, a rectangular piece of wool, draped over the shoulders, which had to be fastened with a clasp; the pallum - or women's palla - was a short rectangular cloak, influenced by the Greek himation; the paludanentum, was an enlarged version of the Greek chlamys, worn by Roman generals.

The author is the founder and owner of Adriana Allen LLC - a European fashion brand offering handmade and one-of-a-kind handbags and fashion accessories. You can learn more about world fashion, fashion's history, and how to buy fashion accessories at our official blog

The Peloponnesian War - The Event That Changed History

The Peloponnesian War was waged in Ancient Greece and changed the course of history. So how and why did this catastrophic war take place? On one hand there was a fear of the growing power of the Athenians and on the other their rivalry with the Sparta people. The Athenians held the navel superiority and the people of Sparta had tremendous military prowess. Trade also played a part in the beginning of the war. Coupled with this was Persia's interference and siding with the Sparta people. They did this to acquire lands from Greece. At the end of the war when Sparta was victorious Persia got the lands and further weakened the Greek Empire

How did we get the facts of the Peloponnesian War? Thucydides a soldier historian was a general in the war and was forced into exile for 20 years. This allowed him time to observe and record the Peloponnesian War events in a detailed and observant way. His account is the standard one that all historians look to for facts about this war. Thucydides was not only a general in the army but a scholar as well, with a good education. This enabled him to write an account that gives insight into the power struggles that started this war.

The war changed the course of history in several ways. Power changed hands, social statuses changed and the lives of the people were also altered. There were a variety of reasons for this.

• The length of the war: this was a 27 year war with a short period of peace in between. It put a strain on all the states concerned and resulted in poverty and hardship weakening the states. This left them in a vulnerable position which ultimately allowed Greece to be taken over by Macedonia.


• The outcome oligarchy won over democracy: Instead of the peaceful democratic regime that the Athenians promoted a more warlike oligarchy ruled. The ruling of the thirteen tyrants after the war led to further strife and unrest.


• The draining of financial resources: financial resources of all the Greek states were severely taxed and in some cases drained causing widespread poverty and unrest. This undermined the people, plus the population was decreased due to the long war.


• The continuing strife after the collapse of democracy: continuing strife and unrest occurred even after the war finished. This further weakened The Greek states and made the people's plight worse.

As you can see the Peloponnesian War did indeed shape the course of history. It led to the downfall of not only the Athenian power but the whole of Greece. The war in fact paved the way for Greece's eventual capture by Macedonia and the end of the Greek's power and influence in the region. Rarely has a war been fought that had such terrible consequences for the people concerned. There were truly no victors as far as the Greeks were concerned only losers and defeat.

Resources of this article are on The Peloponnesian War [http://www.peloponnesian-war.com] website.

Engineering An Empire: the Carthage (History Channel program) Part 3/3

After its founding at the end of the ninth century BC, this city soon grew into one of greatest civilizations of the Ancient World - a remarkable city-state that dominated the Mediterranean for over 600 years. Over that span of time, Carthaginian engineers harnessed their extensive resources and manpower to develop some of the ancient world's most groundbreaking technology. Like the Egyptian and Greek masters before them, they built colossal structures able to withstand the ravages of time and man. Carthage was protected by a massive harbor that held hundreds of war ships - which formed the core of antiquity's most formidable navy. And to protect the capital, an intricate series of defensive walls were erected that stretched for more than 23 miles, and housed a standing army of more than 20000 men. For generations, Carthage defined power, strength and ingenuity for the ancient world. But by the third century BC, the empire's existence was threatened by another emerging superpower across the pond - Rome. The two civilizations clashed in a series of three epic wars; a to-the-death struggle for supremacy that would last 118 years. When all was said and done, it would be the Romans who would inherit unrivalled status as the world's lone superpower, and go on to redefine the meaning of power and ingenuity. But when the Romans engineered their empire, they were only following the lead of the Carthaginians. From the city's grand harbor to the rise of one of history's greatest ...

The palace of Philip II, king of ancient Macedonia (360-336 BC) (Greece / History)

Όσο τρεις Παρθενώνες το ανάκτορο του Έλληνα βασιλιά της Μακεδονίας Φιλίππου Β' στις Αιγές (Ελλάδα/Greece, Μακεδονία/Macedonia, Ιστορία/History). The palace of Philip II, king of ancient Macedonia (360-336 BC.) was a huge two-storey mansion, three times the size of the Parthenon. The archaeologist Angeliki Kottaridi, who works at the archaeological site of Aigai - capital of the ancient Macedonian kingdom (today known as Vergina) - "rebuilt" the palace on paper, based on the results of excavations and new data. With a facade measuring 13.60 metres in length and 78 metres in height, many columns and arches, the building was probably the most prestigious of its time. According to Kottaridi, it took 10 to 12 years for the ambitious construction to be completed. The archaeologist calls the palace "Macedonias Parthenon" and "the second most important construction of ancient Greece". With the palace of Philip II, a new style of architecture was introduced to the Hellenistic world, and became a new architectural motif.

Engineering An Empire: AGE OF ALEXANDER (History Channel program) Part 2/3

438 BC. The Parthenon is complete. This masterpiece is the crowning achievement of a remarkable century for the Greek people. They have enjoyed a burst of creativity rarely seen in the history of mankind. Led by Athens, the world's first democracy, the Greeks charged to new and dazzling heights of accomplishment. Art and form combined with engineering to create some of the most incredible structures ever seen. The brilliance of their ideas had conquered the world's imagination, but Greece's territorial ambitions were stymied by one civil war after another. It would take one man's desire for conquest and domination to unify Greece and then vanquish the world. Without Alexander the Great, it is possible Greece's Golden Era would have been just a footnote in history, but Alexander's triumph had its price. The Athenian experiment with democracy had ended and tens of thousands would die during Alexander's relentless attacks on Persia and Egypt. Still, his armies carried Greek life, culture and values far abroad and this empire became known as the "Hellenistic" world. Greece's amazing engineering achievements and ideas are still with us today. From Pergamon, a city that still stands today as testament to the genius of Greek city planning and engineering, to theaters with acoustics that still amaze sound engineers today, to the world's first lighthouse and one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, this episode will examine the architecture and infrastructure engineered by ...

The Talks on History and Architecture by Ron Gatepain

This looks at the talks by Ron Gatepain for cruise ships on history and architecture relating to the world's famous buildings and landmarks. More information from www.gatepain.co.uk

World History Project on Classical Rome

World History project. The beards are a nice touch, right? I think they're PrettyFreakinAwesome!

Syracuse, Sicily - An Italian City Rich in Greek History

With a 2009 population of 124,000, the city of Syracuse is located on the southeast coast of Sicily, and is known for being rich in Greek history. Syracuse was settled by Greeks in the 8th century BC, and evolved to become what Roman philosopher Cicero called "the greatest Greek City and most beautiful of them all".

The original city was located on the fortified Ortygia Island, and although the city is still centered there, Syracuse has spread extensively inland. Exploring Ortygia reveals three thousand years of history, starting with the harbor front that leads to a maze of winding ancient streets. The central Piazza del Duomo is impressive with its imposing buildings, and the Cathedral there was built in the 7th century over top of the 5th century BC Temple of Athens. Also central to the old city, and housed in the 13th century Bellomo Palace, is the Regional Art Museum.

The year 1693 saw a devastating earthquake, and Syracuse was rebuilt in what is termed Sicilian Baroque, now regarded as the classic architecture of Italy. The northern part of the city saw heavy damage by Allied bombing in World War II, and the area was unfortunately hastily rebuilt.

Syracuse offers much heritage and many monuments in Greek, Roman and Baroque styles. Just outside of the city are several of the more notable monuments, such as the Temple of Zeus, built in the 6th century BC, as well as the Ancient Greek Castle of Euryalos, one of the most complete defensive complexes in all of Western Europe.

Other monuments of note include the Temple of Apollo, The Fountain of Arethusa, which is on Ortygia Island, as well s the Greek Theatre, which was modified later by the Romans for their Circus games and other uses. Also check out the Roman Amphitheatre, which was partially carved out of rock. Syracuse also features quite a few historical churches of note that represent many styles and periods.

Denise has been writing and publishing in the travel and design field since 2001. Check out her latest website which is all about how to identify and find the best discount window treatments , as well as what to look for in sheer window treatments.

History channel - Engineering an Empire - Greek Byzantium 5/5

Relations with Kiev Rus Between 800 and 1100 the Empire developed a mixed relationship with the new state of Kiev Rus that emerged to the north across the Black Sea. Byzantine Empire quickly became a main trading and cultural partner for Kiev. After christianizing Rus Vladimir the Great employed many architects and artists to work on numerous cathedrals and churches around Rus, expanding the Byzantine influence even further. Kiev Princes were often married into the Byzantine imperial family and Constantinople often employed Princes' armies, most notably Vladimir the Great presented Byzantine with the famous Varangian Guard - an army of vicious Scandinavian mercenaries. Some believe that it was done in exchange for the marriage to Basil's sister Anna to Vladimir.[1] However, as Primary Chronicle states the marriage was in exchange for the Rus conversion to Orthodoxy, the Varangian Guard (although a signifficant one) was a by-product of this exchange. These relationships were not always friendly. During those three hundred years Constantinople and other Byzantine cities were attacked several times by the armies of Kiev Rus (see Rus'-Byzantine Wars). Kiev never went far enough to actually endanger the Empire, those wars were only a tool to force the Byzantine to sign increasingly favorable trade treaties, the texts of which are recorded in the Primary Chronicle (Rus'-Byzantine Treaty (907))[4] and other historical documents. Constantinople at the same time constantly played ...

Greece - History Meets Modern Life

Greece is quickly making itself known as a need-to-visit tour site. With its excellent all-season climate, beautiful landscapes, and great tourist spots, visiting Greece is truly a no-brainer. In ancient times, it was the center of modern democracy, culture, and the arts, and it retains this high status even today. Being a city of both ancient influences and modern conveniences, Greece is sure to have something in it for everyone.

If you're the kind of person that likes to relax and just experience nature, the warm Mediterranean country offers thousands of miles of beaches to explore. The soothing turquoise waters and long stretches of white sand create ideal places to just lie back and enjoy yourself. Secluded coves surrounded by gigantic cliffs and palm and pine tree forests abound in Greece, and one should definitely see the country's beautiful seashore in their lifetime, it's an experience you can't forget.

If sight-seeing is more of your thing, no worries: Greece has lots to offer. Towering monuments to ancient Greek gods like Zeus and Athena still stand tall, a testament to the great architectural prowess of the early Grecians. The sophisticated structures of famous buildings like the monumental Acropolis and Temple of Poseidon are truly beautiful sights to behold. Intricate columns and carefully crafted sculptures also flourish. Many modern cities like Washington D.C. borrow the concepts first put into use by the Greeks and their Ionic, Doric, and Corinthian columns are still major inspirations in current architecture.

Greece is also a country of wonderfully rich culture, stemming from the fact that it was the center of sophistication in the ancient world. Traditions, language, music, foods, and wine are all major parts of the Greek culture and leave a lasting impression on all tourists that visit it. Visitors can listen to traditional Greek folk music, Dimotiko Tragoudi, which originated in the early 9th century while partaking in the rich cuisine of the country. Known for its high-quality products and amazing, rich taste, Greek food is some of the best in the world. Unique herbs and spices dot traditional dishes like paidaka, tender and juicy lamb ribs, and pastitsio, a dish reminiscent of Italian lasagna. The hearty Greek diet is also accompanied by some of the best wines, many locally produced in family-owned vineries.

In short, Greece has much to offer to prospective travelers. Stunning beaches, towering monuments, advanced culture, and delicious dining are just some of the many attractions of the country. The tour industry in Greece is becoming more and more advanced and accessible to the average person, as opposed to when only high-class citizens could travel there just decades ago. This is yet another reason to observe the wonders of the country. Online all-in-one booking sites make traveling there even easier. Whatever your reasons are, visiting Greece is a remarkable experience that will go above and beyond your expectations.

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Design History of the Metal Bench

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Among the oldest forms of architecture and décor are those that involve metalwork. Metal furniture has been the preoccupation of designers and fashion moguls of some of the most antiquated civilizations such as the Greek, the Roman and the Middle Eastern ones. This mean that benches are an old type piece of furniture, yet the metal bench became popular only in the 20th century.

The metal bench was initially an urban, public piece but with the evolution of home décor, it became the in thing to have a bench for outdoor uses mostly in home gardens. The era of Victorian style décor played a tremendous role in influencing designers and home keepers to aspire for this kind of ambiance in their homes. Local governments caught the fever and became more aware of urban planning and aesthetics began installing metal benches in public, recreational areas.

In the 20th century, wrought iron was the most utilized material for the construction of the metal bench mostly for a domestic setting. In the absence of superior technology, the malleability of wrought iron was a better choice then. The advent of design and metalwork technology revolutionized the material of choice into steel, which is a much classier and more durable metal. In the late 20th century, carefully crafted steel park benches become so popular in the western world.

Contemporary metalwork is quite different. The metal furniture designs have transformed drastically from the conservative, typical chairs and tables. The metal bench designs have equally evolved from plain, stiff backs to more modern, comfortable seats that are desirable to seat on. Accessories such as head, arm, and leg rests can be customized into the bench to suit the needs of a person. Designers who can show case fantastically contorted metal furniture are most sorts after today by home keepers, architects, and urban developers.

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A Brief History of Theatre Masks

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Theatre masks are an important part of our dramatic history. Nearly every ancient culture used some form of theatrical mask in rituals. Rituals, it has been determined, were the thing which allowed theatre to develop. Rituals were, in other words, primitive theatre.

Because this theatre was 'primitive', acting, as a skill and an art, had not yet been developed. Therefore, the person on stage did not know how to not be himself and the audience was not yet trained to imagine that he were the character he was playing. They used theatre masks as a way to let the audience know what character it was that they were watching.

Masks have generally been used as a significance of character. They let the audience know who the actor is portraying. Though this is not always true. They sometimes have additional uses. For example, the ancient Greek theatre masks had a unique oval shaped mouth which functioned as a megaphone, allowing all of the hundreds of thousands of spectators to hear what was going on.

Theatre masks did not stop being used once the art of acting was developed, nor once microphones became standard on stages. They are still in use today and are used by many theater companies. One of the best known uses of masks in today's theatre is in 'The Lion King' on Broadway.

The use of masks in theatre has a rich background and an even richer future. This article only touches on the fascinating history which these masks hold.

Learn more about the history of theatre masks and more at http://theatremasks.org

Top 5 Places to See on an Ancient History Holiday

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With Indiana Jones back in the cinemas once more, an interest in ancient civilisations is no longer confined to professors and archaeologists. Indeed, cultural heritage holidays are growing increasingly popular, with many AITO tour operators offering trips that look at some of the most notable ancient ruins in the world. While most of the great monuments of ancient civilisations have been eroded or destroyed, some still survive, and visiting one of these sites is like going on a holiday in ancient history. In addition to being spectacular structures in their own right, they form an invaluable part of any cultural heritage holiday, giving a glimpse of a way of life that has long since disappeared.

If you fancy yourself as the next academic adventurer and are considering a cultural heritage holiday abroad, here are five of the most important places to visit around the world.

The Parthenon, Greece

Anyone on a specialised classical Greece holiday will see many amazing sights, including the Temple at Delphi and the ruins of the Temple of Zeus at Mount Olympus. But dwarfing them all is the Parthenon in Athens, often regarded as the most important classical monument that is still standing today. It is an ancient temple to the goddess Athena, and is one of the finest examples of ancient Greek architecture and artwork. The inside is a treasure trove of sculptures (though much of its content now resides in the British museum), and the temple is placed in an unforgettable location on the Acropolis, looking down over Athens.

Machu Picchu, Peru

This "Lost City of the Incas" was only rediscovered at the beginning of the 20th century, and is an essential place to visit for those interested in past civilisations. Situated on top of a mountain above the Urubamba Valley in Peru, this excellently preserved site is the one of the finest remaining examples of Inca architecture and has been voted one of the New Seven Wonders of the World.

You can reach Machu Picchu by train from Cusco, but for a really adventurous cultural heritage holiday you can walk the Inca Trail, a multi day hike through a number of Inca ruins that reaches Machu Picchu at sunrise on the fourth day.

Great Pyramid of Giza, Egypt

Out of the Seven Wonders of the World listed by the ancient Greek historian Herodotus, the Great Pyramid of Giza is the only one that can still be seen today on an ancient history holiday to Egypt. Built over 4500 years ago, the Pyramid was built as a tomb for the Egyptian pharaoh Cheops. It took over twenty years to construct, and was the tallest man-made structure in the world for several thousand years.

Chichen Itza, Mexico

Cultural heritage holidays to Mexico inevitably tour the ruins of ancient Mayan civilisation, and Chichen Itza is one of the most important Mayan sites in Mexico. The temple complex was built over 2000 years ago, and most of the buildings remain intact today, including the Temple of Kukulkan, the Great Ball Court and the Temple of the Warriors. It was the capital of Mayan civilisation for almost a thousand years - why Chichen Itza was abandoned is not known, but archaeological research suggests its downfall was violent. The site is truly a must-see for those with an interest in ancient Mayan culture, with some of the best preserved Mayan architecture left standing today.

Coliseum, Italy

Situated at the centre of Rome, this colossal amphitheatre (the largest ever built in the ancient Roman empire) is almost 2000 years old. Originally known as the Flavian Amphitheatre, the Coliseum could hold over 50,000 spectators, and hosted gladiatorial contests, performances and historical enactments. Despite damage from earthquakes and robbery, it has stood the test of time and remains one of the landmark sights for a cultural heritage holiday to Italy.

Kieron Sellens is the marketing manager of the Association of Independent Tour Operators (AiTO). With AITO's cultural breaks you can choose from tailor-made cultural heritage holidays, historical tours, musical trips and many more. The independent tour operators that AITO represent specialise in worldwide holidays tailored to their customers' requirements.

An Ancient History of Naples

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Naples of modern day shows all of the signs of it's long history. Listening to the language and looking at the remnants of lost civilizations, the buildings and architecture, remind you of the long traditional history of this city.

Naples was originally a Greek colony founded by sailors coming from Rhodos. It was a merchant colony which they called Parthenope and was situated on the island of Megaride.

The name of Naples actually has it's roots in the 5th century BC when new Greek colonists displaced the original settlers and founded "Neapolis", Greek for "New City". From then on, Naples was born. The old city of Parthenope gradually became part of the new city and Neapolis itself became a thriving place with a range of powerful wall defences which manage to withstand Hannibal.

Rome conquered Neapolis in the 4th century BC but the city retained much of it's Greek culture which is still very evident today. Great buildings were built including the Odeon, a theatre and the temple of Castor and Pollux. It became a place for affluent Romans to visit to increase their understanding of the Greek culture and given the tremendous climate it also served as an ancient holiday resort. Rome improved the city immeasurably with road systems, baths, aqueducts and enlarging the port. The number of visitors to Naples grew and trade with overseas countries expanded too. It became a place well known for it's feasts and public spectacles.

There are miles of underground catacombs beneath Naples and these have a part in the Christian history of the city. In the latter years of the Roman Empire many people came to preach Christianity, including, it is said, St Paul and St Peter. The early Christian basilicas were built next to the catacomb entrances. The patron saint of Naples is San Gennaro, decapitated in 305 AD, and the Cathedral of Naples is dedicated to his life and works.

Later years saw Naples suffer in the Gothic Wars between Ostrogoths and Byzantines, and it fell in 542 AD to the troops of Totila. Shortly afterwards it became Greek again. Although now established as part of Italy, Naples will always be faithful to it's Greek traditions and history.

Discover the italian pizza recipe secrets to making restaurant quality pizzas every time: Italian Pizza Secrets Uncovered

History of Construction in the United States

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The Empire State Building, the White House, the Golden Gate Bridge, and the United States Capitol - all have one thing in common (except for the obvious fact that they are all situated in the USA): they all testify to the rich history of architecture of the USA.

The architectural timeline of the USA can be divided into 5 different periods viz.

* The Colonial period (1607-1830)
* The Federal Age (1789-1865)
* Victorian Era (1837-1914)
* Arts and Crafts (1860-1920)
* Modernism (1920 and beyond)

In the 1600s, USA was mainly occupied by immigrants from Europe who settled in various parts of the country. Thus, the buildings built by them mainly constitute the architectural timeline of this period. Early colonial architecture varied considerably from region to region, based on the nationality of the settlers. What is now commonly called as folk architecture is normally a direct effect of uncomplicated motifs of the homelands of the builders finding their way into the architecture. Important constructions of this era incorporate Virginia state capitol (one of the leading examples of Georgian architecture) and Pennsylvania state house.

Federal constructions were a usual find in the post colonial era, from the creation of the US constitution to the starting of civil war. Federal architecture predominated government buildings and was heavily found in American settlements (mainly New England).

Federal period architecture is generally based on the English form of architecture. However, a renewal of Greek forms is also noticed, signifying the architectural freedom of America from the European heritage. With the commencement of the Civil War however, the acceptance of the Federal form died down. The United States Capitol was built in this duration.

In 1837, Queen Victoria started her command in United Kingdom. The early decades of the Victorian era witnessed the enlargement of the industrial revolution. Mass production began to set in, thus lowering the price of materials and handling time. Houses started to shift out of their squarish shapes and box like structures, paving the way for more complicated floor structures and confused architecture. As the luxury of American cities spread, a widespread demand for a today's (according to timelicurrent (according to current (according to timeline) shape of architecture was noticed. This led to a widespread tradition of the Victorian form of architecture. However, inception of World War 1 in 1918 marked the ending of this period.

However the increasing industrialization of the Victorian age had a frequent feedback as well. People started returning to craftsmanship, instead of heavily relying on machinery. Spanning the whole of Victorian age and going beyond the World War, the age of Arts and craft was a notable duration throughout the whole world. America was no exclusion.

Modernism in American architecture is simple, and notional. Going beyond the 1920s and more, modernism is heavily influenced by futuristic designs. With examples of giant skyscrapers like the Empire State Building and the World Trade Center, modernism has given America the pet name of the melting pot. The roots of the background is expressed, while a substantial move towards more futuristic designs is maintained, signifying the fact that variation is absolute.

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A Brief History of Ancient Egyptian Art

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Egyptians loved life on earth so much that they desired to take its pleasures into the after-world. They believed that the rich and powerful (at least) were able to take life's pleasures with them via placement in royal tombs, the Pyramids. Throughout the dynasties of Ancient Egypt, the role of the tomb and accompanying architecture, sculpture, and painting all worked to ensure that Egyptians would enter the afterlife prepared with all the worldly goods they needed.

Role of Art
Most Egyptian art and painting was done for the sake of the dead. At first items like jewelry, animals (cats, for example), food, and other essential tools and treasures were stockpiled within the tombs. The discovery of King Tut's cache brought the issue to prominence for those in the Western world thousands of years later, but this practice had been in effect for much of ancient Egyptian history.

For Egyptians who didn't want to stockpile actual items, yet still wanted to ensure a happy afterlife, many chose painting as a labor-saving and cost-cutting measure, replacing expensive treasures, sculpture, or stone carvings. Painting was not limited to tombs. Many wealthy Egyptians often had murals in their homes, done in richly textured, painterly styles. Yet most of the finest examples of Ancient Egyptian art that remains are remnants from tombs.

Examples of Ancient Art
One of the most important tomb paintings is "Geese of Medum" (2530 BC), which showcases three majestic birds from the tomb of Nefermaat, son of Sneferu, the first pharaoh of the 4th dynasty. It is only a frieze detail, but it already hints at the vitality and power of Ancient Egyptian art.

"Lamenting Women" (1370 BC) on the tomb of Ramose (a minister who lived under 2 pharaohs of the 18th dynasty) depicts the scene of a funderal procession. Although the women in the painting appear flat, their expressions of anguish fairly vibrate with emotion.

"Fowling Scene" (1400 BC) from a nobleman's tomb in Thebes is a good example of fresco secco, a technique that applies tempera paint to dry plaster, and echoes once again the importance of nature.

Importance of Art
For Ancient Egyptians, it was the "eternal essence" that mattered, the constant, unchanging reality that they sought to convey with their art. Art was not meant to reflect the changing nature of the external world. Even though the artists of Ancient Egypt were keen observers of nature, their art and its subjects were created according to a rigid standardization of forms and symbols.

This is not the reflection of "Primativism," as it is clear from Egyptian art that their technical skill was advanced and their understanding of natural form was astute. Instead Egyptian art was a direct consequence of intellectual decisions that were geared toward the presentation of an ideal.

For example, in Ancient Egyptian art, every subject is shown from an angle that would make it most clearly identifiable, according to a rank-based scale (small to large) based on social hierarchy. The result is a highly patterned almost diagram-like appearance.

This overriding focus on clarity applied to all subjects. In humans, for example, the human head is always shown in profile, yet both eyes are always drawn in front. Figures are portrayed in the same manner, from small to large, based on their ranking in society. Children are merely small adults. As a result, Ancient Egyptian art appears to have a flat appearance without a hint of perspective, but this was a conscious artistic choice.

Rules of Representation
Full-length Egyptian figures in Ancient Egyptian art are organized by the "rule of proportion," a strict geometric grid system that ensured accurate repetition of the artistic ideal. This was a foolproof system that regulated the exact distances between parts of the body (divided into 18 equal units) and placed in relation to points on a grid.

Before beginning to draw a figure, the Ancient Egyptian artist would create a grid. This can be seen in the Egyptian painting "Pharaoh Tuthmose III" (1450 BC), where the grid still remains.

Breaking with Tradition
Not only did Egyptians paint tombs, they also painted sculpture, and one outstanding example is "Head of Nefertitti" (1360 BC), which was a portrait of the wife of Pharaoh Akhenaten. This example of Ancient Egyptian art is very unusual, however, because it shows a loosening of the rigid conventions that prevailed for centuries. It shows a wistfulness, a grace and originality rarely seen.

This break with traditional Ancient Egyptian art did not last. Naturalism and subtleness had no role in Ancient Egyptian art, and realism was not important. Instead, this mysterious time in history would remain fixated on creating an art that strived for the ideal.

Christine Zibas is a veteran of the think tank world, having worked in both Washington, DC, and London. She is a former travel writer, specializing in educational travel. Her last job before becoming a freelance writer was as director of publications for a nonprofit organization, based in Chicago, Illinois.